Experts Define Hypnosis
© Donald Robertson 2002
[James Braid] [Hippolyte
Bernheim] [Sigmund Freud] [UK Book
of Statutes]
[British Medical Association] [Dave Elman]
[Gil Boyne] [UK Council for Psychotherapy]
The inspiration for this page comes from a section in the influential American hypnotist Gil Boyne's book Transforming Therapy (1985). It contains quotations from acknowledged experts in the field of hypnotism, psychotherapy, psychology, and medicine who attempt to define the nature of hypnosis. The first definition given here is the original one given by James Braid, the Scottish doctor who effectively discovered hypnosis in 1841. Then we have the official definitions of 'hypnosis' given by the Book of Statutes and the British Medical Association. In my opinion, the best definition is that given by Mr Boyne himself (q.v.), however, here is my own attempt to distinguish between various different meanings of the word 'hypnosis' and related concepts:
Proposed Definition(s)
Hypnosis. 1) Hypnotic trance; an altered state of awareness ('trance') in which unconscious or dissociated responses to suggestion are enhanced in quality and increased in degree ('hyper-suggestibility'). 2) Hypnotic induction ('hypnogenesis'); the process by which hypnotic trance is induced in the operator ('auto-' or 'self-hypnosis') or in others ('hetero-hypnosis'). 3) Hypnotism; the field of study which encompasses, among other things, hypnotic trance; its induction, management, and application; and related subjects such as the phenomena of 'waking suggestion' and naturally occurring ('hypnoidal') trance states. (Abbrv. of 'neuro-hypnotism' meaning 'sleep of the nervous system.')
Hypnotherapy. The use of therapeutic techniques or principles in conjunction with hypnosis.
Hypnoanalysis. The use of hypnotherapy to develop personal insight and self-awareness in order thereby to bring about a therapeutic result. (Deriv. from 'hypno-' and '(psycho)analysis.')
Not only was Doctor James Braid the originator of the term 'hypnotism' but, what's more, he was also a Scotsman! Braid realised that the 'Animal Magnetists,' the followers of the Viennese healer Franz Anton Mesmer, were indeed producing a genuinely altered state in their subjects. However, he replaced their supernatural theory, which had been around since the middle of the eighteenth century, with a genuine scientific account based on measurement and observation, thereby pioneering the medical acceptance of hypnosis. Braid coined the term 'Neuro-Hypnotism,' which he himself abbreviated to 'Hypnotism':
By the term "Neuro-Hypnotism," then, is to be understood "nervous sleep," [...] a peculiar state of the nervous system, induced by a fixed and abstracted attention of the mental and visual eye, on one object, not of an exciting nature. [Braid, Neurypnology, 1843]
Braid later reviewed his idea that hypnosis was a specific neurological state and replaced it with the theory that hypnosis was 'monoideation,' the fixation of consciousness on a single idea or object:
The real origin and essence of the hypnotic condition is the induction of a habit of abstraction or mental concentration, in which, as in reverie or spontaneous abstraction, the powers of the mind are so much engrossed with a single idea or train of thought, as, for the nonce, to render the individual unconscious of, or indifferently conscious to, all other ideas, impressions, or trains of thought. [Braid, 1852: 53-54]
One of the great, early pioneers of hypnosis. Professor Bernheim was an important figure in the history of French psychology and is credited with popularising the view that hypnosis is fundamentally both a state of heightened suggestibility and induced by means of suggestion.
To define hypnotism as induced sleep, is to give a too narrow meaning to the word, to overlook the many phenomena which suggestion can bring about independently of sleep. I define hypnotism as the induction of a peculiar psychical condition which increases the susceptibility to suggestion. Often, it is true, the sleep that may be induced facilitates suggestion, but it is not the necessary preliminary. It is suggestion that rules hypnotism.
I have tried to show that suggested sleep differs in no respect from natural sleep. The same phenomena of suggestion can be obtained in natural sleep, if one succeeds in putting one's self into relationship [rapport] with the sleeping person without waking him.
This new idea which I propose concerning the hypnotic influence, this wider definition given to the word hypnotism, permits us to include in the same class of phenomena all the various methods which, acting upon imagination, induce the psychical condition of exalted susceptibility to suggestion [hyper-suggestibility] with or without sleep. [Hippolyte Bernheim, Hypnosis & Suggestion in Psychotherapy, 1884: 15-16]
Freud pioneered the use of hypnosis, between about 1885 and 1905, as a vehicle for regression and catharsis. However, he abandoned it in order to develop his own technique of psychoanalysis. Nevertheless in an article publsihed late in his career Freud returned to the subject of hypnotherapy once again, suggesting that it might be neccessary to somehow combine the findings of psychoanalysis with the methods of hypnotherapy in order to produce a briefer and more powerful form of treatment. This notion was subsequently developed by other psychotherapists and led to the school of hypnosis which we now call "hypnoanalysis." Freud's comments here are more in the manner of a brief descriptions, rather than a definition per se, nevertheless they reveal something of his views on the nature of hypnosis.
It has long been known, though it has only been established beyond all doubt during the last few decades, that it is possible, by certain gentle means, to put people into a quite peculiar mental state very similar to sleep and on that account described as 'hypnosis.' [...] The hypnotic state exhibits a great variety of gradations. In its lightest degree the hypnotic subject is aware only of something like a slight insensibility, while the most extreme degree, which is marked by special peculiarities, is known as 'somnambulism', on account of its resemblance to the natural phenomena of sleep-walking. But hypnosis is in no sense a sleep like our nocturnal sleep or like the sleep produced by drugs. Changes occur in it and mental functions are retained during it which are absent in normal sleep. [Freud, On Psychical Treatment, 1905]
This is the official legal definition of "hypnotism" provided by the Hypnotism Act 1952, however, I would like to emphasise that it is a very unsatisfactory definition and very misleading in that it implies hypnosis is a state of 'sleep.' This was a step backwards, in ignorance of the findings of medical researchers such as Bernheim and Freud, as you can see from their statements above. Conscious of this, the British Medical Association subsequently offered their own definition in response to the obvious deficiencies of the Hypnotism Act, which nevertheless still stands in British law:
“Hypnotism” includes hypnotism, mesmerism and any similar act or process which produces or is intended to produce in any person any form of induced sleep or trance in which the susceptibility of the mind of that person to suggestion or direction is increased or intended to be increased but does not include hypnotism, mesmerism or any similar act or process which is self-induced. [The Hypnotism Act, 1952]
The British Medical Association (BMA)
This definition concentrates on the measurable psychological and physiological changes in hypnosis. Note well that it deliberately substitutes 'altered attention' for the misleading expression 'induced sleep' used by the Book of Statues. Although phrased in medical jargon, this is a considerable improvement on previous definitions.
A temporary condition of altered attention in the subject which may be induced by another person and in which a variety of phenomena may appear spontaneously or in response to verbal or other stimuli. These phenomena include alterations in consciousness and memory, increased susceptibility to suggestion, and the production in the subject of responses and ideas unfamiliar to him in his usual state of mind. Further, phenomena such as anaesthesia, paralysis and rigidity of muscles, and vasomotor changes can be produced and removed in the hypnotic state. [BMA, 'Medical use of Hypnotism', 1955]
Mr Elman is one of the most highly respected figures in the history of clinical hypnotherapy. He pioneered the use of rapid induction techniques and was a great advocate of the hypno-analytic approach to therapy. His work is characterised by an astute, common sense approach, which nevertheless often hits the nail on the head:
Hypnosis is a state of mind in which the critical faculty of the human is bypassed, and selective thinking established. [Dave Elman, Hypnotherapy, 1964: 26]
Of all the definitions offered here, in my view, this one is the best, the most practical, and the most accurate. Gil is a renowned hypnotherapist, trainer of hypnotherapists, and founder of the American Council of Hypnotist Examiners. He is well liked and respected by other hypnotherapists.
Hypnosis is a natural state of mind with special identifying characteristics:
1. An extraordinary quality of relaxation.
2. An emotionalized desire to satisfy the suggested behaviour: The person feels like doing what the hypnotist suggests, provided that what is suggested does not generate conflict with his belief system.
3. The organism becomes self-regulating and produces normalization of the central nervous system.
4. Heightened and selective sensitivity to stimuli perceived by the five senses and four basic perceptions.
5. Immediate softening of psychic defenses. [Gil Boyne, Transforming Therapy, 1985: 380-381]
The UK Council for Psychotherapy (UKCP)
In 1992 the UK Council for Psychotherapy (UKCP) was formed to act as an ‘umbrella body’ for psychotherapy organisations of all orientations. A section was established for ‘hypno-psychotherapy’, i.e., the practice of hypnosis as a technique integrated within a broader programme of psychotherapy. The UKCP define 'hypno-psychotherapy' as follows:
Hypno-Psychotherapy originates in procedures and practices discovered and recorded over the last three hundred years. The first formal exploration and beneficial application of hypnotic phenomena began in the 1750's. Increasing awareness, over the last 100 years, of the pervasiveness and importance in human experience of what are now more appropriately described as 'altered state phenomena' has led to huge shifts in theoretical understanding, convergence with discoveries emerging from modern neuro-science and much increased consistency in application. This has been accompanied by the creation of a substantial scientific literature.Hypnosis describes a range of naturally occurring states of altered awareness which may vary from momentary distractions and 'absences' through much enhanced states of relaxation to very deep states of inward focus and awareness.. The mental processes which can occur in any of these states, appropriately utilised, are generally far more flexible and potentially far more powerful in effecting change than those we can achieve in most everyday states of active conscious awareness. These states may be induced quite formally or quite naturalistically, in an almost unnoticeable way, depending on the requirement of the problem, the capability of the practitioner and the needs of the client.
As well as alleviating a range of disadvantageous habits and many physical ailments, Hypno-Psychotherapy also deals in deep-seated problems involving themes and procedures in many ways similar to those addressed by many other branches of Psychotherapy. Hypno-Psychotherapists take a wide-ranging and eclectic view in helping clients to understand and to alleviate psychological difficulties.
A variety of approaches are represented within the Section. At one end of the spectrum Hypno-Psychotherapists base their diagnostic work and therapeutic strategies in modern information processing models whilst others have emphases in other orientations ( e.g. Cognitive, Cognitive Analytic, Psychodynamic or Counselling modes ). In all cases, practice differs from other forms of psychotherapy in the deliberate ( direct and indirect ) use of altered mental states and supporting therapeutic structures as the principal medium for effecting change.
It should be emphasized that the methods and strategies used in Hypno-Psychotherapy, though powerful and often speedy in effect, also respect and are attuned to the qualities and characteristics of the individual client involved. They seek to utilize and enhance the resources and capabilities that reside in all people, and do not by any means require the client to respond to any standardized technique or to fit into any standardized pattern.
While flexibility is paramount, the working relationship in Hypno-Psychotherapy strives for equality between client and therapist, in providing a safe and supportive environment, where the client can explore and clarify relevant personal matters. In encouraging agreed modification of the client's beliefs, emotional responses and behaviour, the problem may require the therapist to assume a more active or directive role. In shorter term engagements, it can be used to inculcate skills and overcome limiting habits or personal and social inhibitions. During longer-term therapy, the working relationship may present a dynamic context for the client to examine and work through important self-protection issues, including the reframing and resolution of challenging early experiences and liberation from previous blocks to personal development.
Hypno-Psychotherapy may be valuable to anyone seeking to resolve specific problems, or for personal development. (UKCP, 2004)